The Prince

Niccolò Machiavelli’s The Prince is a short political treatise written in 1513 and published posthumously in 1532. Presented as advice to a hypothetical new ruler, it draws on Machiavelli’s experience as a Florentine diplomat and his study of Roman history, especially Livy, to explain how princely power is won and kept. Its central argument is that a prince must learn to act according to necessity rather than conventional Christian virtue. Machiavelli distinguishes between hereditary and newly acquired principalities, and among completely new states, mixed states, and “ecclesiastical” principalities. He examines how conquerors may hold territories acquired “either with the arms of others or with one’s own,” and why a prince who relies on mercenary or auxiliary troops is weak; native arms are essential. Other chapters address reputation and fear. Machiavelli asks whether it is better to be loved than feared, concluding that a prince should prefer to be both, but if forced to choose, fear is more reliable—while avoiding hatred. He advises against excessive generosity, arguing that a reputation for liberality can exhaust a ruler’s resources and lead to extortion. On promises, he compares the prince to a fox and a lion: force and fraud are both available instruments, and a prudent ruler keeps faith only when it serves him. The book also treats conspiracy, fortuna, and virtu. Machiavelli likens fortune to a violent river that can be contained by foresight, and argues that successful princes match their methods to the times. He discusses Cesare Borgia and Pope Alexander VI as examples, and closes by urging an Italian prince to expel foreign invaders and unify Italy. Its unsentimental realism made “Machiavellian” a byword for cunning statecraft.