The Structure of Scientific Revolutions

Thomas S. Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, first published in 1962, argues that science does not progress by steady accumulation of facts but through periodic upheavals. Kuhn, a historian and philosopher of science, introduced the concept of the paradigm: a shared set of assumptions, methods, and exemplary problems that defines a scientific community's work during what he called normal science. In this phase, researchers solve puzzles within the paradigm rather than questioning its foundations. Kuhn's central claim is that anomalies—findings that resist explanation under the prevailing paradigm—gradually accumulate until the discipline enters a crisis. This crisis is resolved not by refining the old framework but by a paradigm shift, a revolutionary replacement of one worldview with another. His landmark examples include the Copernican revolution, which displaced Ptolemaic astronomy, and the shift from Newtonian mechanics to Einstein's relativity. Kuhn likened such transitions to a gestalt switch: after the change, scientists literally see different things in the same data. The book also challenged the idea that theory choice is purely rational. Kuhn contended that competing paradigms are often incommensurable, meaning their standards of evidence and meaning differ so much that neutral comparison is impossible. This sparked decades of debate about relativism and the sociology of knowledge. Terms from the book—paradigm shift, normal science, anomaly, crisis, incommensurability—became widely used far beyond philosophy. Kuhn later clarified and softened some claims, but the 1962 text remains his most influential work and a foundational text in the history and philosophy of science.